Parenting stress also known as "parental burnout" relates to stressors that are a function of being in and executing the parenting role. It is a construct that relates to both psychological phenomena and to the human body's physiological state as a parent or caretaker of a child.[2] Such effects can be exacerbated when the child has complex care needs such as physical, developmental, emotional or behavioural needs.[3][4][5][6]
Context
Unlike many stressful situations and events, parenting stressors tend to be long-term, repetitive, and can create chronic stress that manifests both in psychological and physiological ways. Extensive cross-cultural research has found that parenting stress is associated with parenting and child behaviors, various parenting-related cognitions, and the parent's and child's physiological states. Abidin[7] has presented a non-exhaustive model and a measure that attempts to define the major components of parenting stress, and the impact of these stressors on parenting behavior and their child's development.[8][9] The model concentrates on proximal variables related to the execution of the parenting role: the perceived behavioral characteristics of the child, the parent's self-cognitions, and their perceptions of the familial and friend support available to them. These proximal factors in turn connect with other aspects of the child's and the parent's interpersonal milieu. There are several operational definitions and ways of measuring aspects of parenting stress.[10] Many of these have shown good reliability and criterion validity across a range of different samples, establishing evidence of generalizability. The Parenting Stress Index (PSI),[11] the most widely used measure of parenting stress, has shown associations with a wide range of parenting behaviors and child outcomes and has been used in hundreds of published studies.[12] Since the fourth edition of the PSI has been translated in over 30 languages,[13] cross-cultural replications of the PSI factor structure have been published using normative samples from several countries. Copies of these measures and their test manuals may be obtained from the respective publisher. The goal is to provide a brief overview of the construct of parenting stress for a broader audience, given that the topic is likely to be of interest and importance across a wide range of medical and research contexts. Parenting is a human universal across time and culture, and the construct connects with psychological development, socialization of children, education, health (including when either person in the parent-child dyad experiences other illness or injury), and a wealth of other issues. The overview concludes with links to resources for learning more, or for incorporating measures into other programs of research.
Description
The construct of parenting stress builds on the seminal works of both Selye[14] and Lazarus.[15] Selye demonstrated that a physiological response occurred in the body by phenomenological events like physical environmental stimuli. Although not always maladaptive, the stress in parenting is more likely to be maladaptive, especially when the stress is severe or chronic. Further, he demonstrated that, regardless of the sources of stress, the greater the number of stressors, the larger the body's physiological response. That finding suggested that parenting stress would need to be understood and measured by considering multiple variables. Lazarus articulated the connection of perceptions to emotions and subsequently to both the physiological response and the likely behavioral responses of individuals. Parenting stress thus conceived is not simply a reaction to observable events but the interpretations and other cognitions of the parent relative to the events. The Lazarus model suggests four stages of the stress reaction:
- Recognition of an environmental demand,
- The perception of the demand in terms of whether it is perceived as a threat,
- Whether or not the individual believes they have the resources to cope with the event. This process is instantaneous and is essentially an unconscious response.
- Based on stage three, the nervous system responds by either relaxing or preparing to flee or fight.
Thus, the works of Selye and Lazarus provide conceptual frameworks for understanding the links between emotion perception, stress, and coping. Multiple evidence-based measures of parenting stress have been developed.[10]
Research
Kirby Deater-Deckard, in the volume Parenting Stress, presented the first comprehensive articulation of the research on parenting stress concerning the characteristics of parents, the parent-child relationship, and parents' coping behaviors.[16] Since Deater-Deckard's work, there has been a rapid expansion of research documenting the linkage between parenting stress and a wide variety of important issues related to family functioning and child development and behavior. The summary below provides a brief sampling to illustrate the breadth of impact parenting stress has on members of the core family system. It is an illustrative review extracting some examples from a recent more comprehensive review (with its own formal literature review search and extraction process) to concisely introduce a range of topics.
Observed Parenting Behavior
Parenting stress has been demonstrated to be predictive of abusive mother's behavior towards their children during free play and task situations, parents’ verbal harshness, demanding and controlling behaviors, and parents' level of warmth and engagement with their child.[17][18][19][20][21][22] Parental stress or burnout can manifest as an "emotional distancing from their children" due to overwhelming exhaustion among other causes.[23]
Child Development and Outcomes
Parents’ level of stress has been found to be predictive of the development of problem behaviors in children, children's aggressiveness, callous-unemotional traits in children, and children's coping competence.[17][24][25][26][27] Barroso et al. conducted a major review and meta-analysis of the parenting stress literature, which revealed that parenting stress is a major factor with parents coping with their children's behavior.[28][29]
Child Academic Functioning
Children whose parents exhibit high levels of parenting stress display difficulties in executive functioning, lower levels of academic competence, and other behavioral problems in school.[30][31][29][28]
Physical Health and Physiological Issues
Parenting stress has been associated with elevated cortisol and oxytocin levels both in parents and their children.[30][32][29] These are well-established chemical markers of an individual's mental and physical health. Mothers who exhibit high levels of parenting stress also display a failure to care for their own health needs while also overusing pediatric healthcare services for their children.[28][33] Parenting stress has also been associated with parental brain functioning, epigenetic DNA methylation, and parent-child behavioral synchrony, and brain synchrony.[34][35][36]
Compliance with Medical and Psychological Treatment
Parents with elevated stress levels have significantly higher non-compliance rates for their treatment and the medically necessary care of their children. They also are early terminators of psychological treatments for their children.[37][38][39]
The Parenting Partner Relationship
The quality of the parents' relationship is a central variable in terms of child outcomes. The level of parenting stress experienced by parenting partners is associated with the child's physical and mental health.[40][41][42]
References
This article was adapted from the following source under a CC BY 4.0 license (2022) (reviewer reports): Richard Abidin; Logan Smith; Hannah Kim; Eric Youngstrom (21 June 2022). "Parenting stress" (PDF). WikiJournal of Medicine. 9 (1): 3. doi:10.15347/WJM/2022.003. ISSN 2002-4436. Wikidata Q99676829.
- ^ Kim, Hannah (2019). "Parenting Stress". Open Science Framework. doi:10.17605/osf.io/9cg58.
- ^ Roskam, Isabelle; Raes, Marie-Emilie; Mikolajczak, Moïra (2017-02-09). "Exhausted Parents: Development and Preliminary Validation of the Parental Burnout Inventory". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 163. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00163. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 5298986. PMID 28232811.
- ^ Patty, Nathalie J. S.; van Meeteren, Karen M.; Verdonk, Minke; Ketelaar, Marjolijn; Schuengel, Carlo; Willemen, Agnes M. (2024-12-15). "Conceptualizing burnout from the perspective of parents of children with complex care needs". PEC Innovation. 5: 100325. doi:10.1016/j.pecinn.2024.100325. ISSN 2772-6282.
- ^ Page, Bethan F.; Hinton, Lisa; Harrop, Emily; Vincent, Charles (2020-06-16). "The challenges of caring for children who require complex medical care at home: 'The go between for everyone is the parent and as the parent that's an awful lot of responsibility'". Health Expectations. 23 (5): 1144–1154. doi:10.1111/hex.13092. ISSN 1369-6513. PMC 7696130. PMID 32542954.
- ^ Kirk, Susan; Glendinning, Caroline (2002-08-01). "Supporting 'expert' parents—professional support and families caring for a child with complex health care needs in the community". International Journal of Nursing Studies. 39 (6): 625–635. doi:10.1016/S0020-7489(01)00069-4. ISSN 0020-7489. PMID 12100874.
- ^ Woodgate, Roberta L.; Edwards, Marie; Ripat, Jacquie D.; Borton, Barbara; Rempel, Gina (2015-11-26). "Intense parenting: a qualitative study detailing the experiences of parenting children with complex care needs". BMC Pediatrics. 15 (1): 197. doi:10.1186/s12887-015-0514-5. ISSN 1471-2431. PMC 4660805. PMID 26611116.
- ^ Abidin, Richard R. (December 1992). "The Determinants of Parenting Behavior". Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 21 (4): 407–412. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12. ISSN 0047-228X.
- ^ Abidin, Richard R. (1986). Parenting Stress Index : manual (PSI). Pediatric Psychology Press. OCLC 21184758.
- ^ Abidin, Richard R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index: professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources. OCLC 55989316.
- ^ a b Holly, Lindsay E.; Fenley, Alicia R.; Kritikos, Tessa K.; Merson, Rachel A.; Abidin, Richard R.; Langer, David A. (2019-09-03). "Evidence-Base Update for Parenting Stress Measures in Clinical Samples". Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 48 (5): 685–705. doi:10.1080/15374416.2019.1639515. ISSN 1537-4416. PMID 31393178. S2CID 199504237.
- ^ Abidin, Richard R. (2012) Parenting Stress Index: 4th Ed. Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. 987654321.
- ^ "Assessment of Parenting Stress and the PSI-4: Supplemental Resources". www.parinc.com. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
- ^ "Parenting Stress Index, 4th Edition | PSI-4". www.parinc.com. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
- ^ Selye, Hans, 1907-1982. (1978). The stress of life (Rev. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070562121. OCLC 3294632.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Lazarus, Richard S. (2006). Stress and emotion : a new synthesis. Springer Pub. Co. ISBN 9780826102614. OCLC 224717677.
- ^ Deater-Deckard, Kirby (2004-08-11). Parenting Stress. Yale University Press. pp. 27–54. doi:10.12987/yale/9780300103939.001.0001. ISBN 9780300103939. S2CID 246111816.
- ^ a b Tripp, Gail; Schaughency, Elizabeth A.; Langlands, Robyn; Mouat, Kelly (2007-06-01). "Family Interactions in Children With and Without ADHD". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 16 (3): 385–400. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9093-2. ISSN 1573-2843. S2CID 143394378.
- ^ Wagner, Shannon L.; Cepeda, Ivan; Krieger, Dena; Maggi, Stefania; D’Angiulli, Amedeo; Weinberg, Joanne; Grunau, Ruth E. (2015-09-03). "Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare". Child Neuropsychology. 22 (7): 853–869. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1080232. ISSN 0929-7049. PMC 4833630. PMID 26335047.
- ^ Niu, Hua; Liu, Li; Wang, Meifang (May 2018). "Intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline: The moderating role of parenting stress and parent gender". Child Abuse & Neglect. 79: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.017. ISSN 0145-2134. PMID 29407851.
- ^ Feldman, Ruth; Gordon, Ilanit; Zagoory-Sharon, Orna (2010-12-16). "Maternal and paternal plasma, salivary, and urinary oxytocin and parent-infant synchrony: considering stress and affiliation components of human bonding". Developmental Science. 14 (4): 752–761. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01021.x. ISSN 1363-755X. PMID 21676095.
- ^ McKay, Jessamy M.; Pickens, Jeffrey; Stewart, Anne L. (1996-09-01). "Inventoried and observed stress in parent-child interactions". Current Psychology. 15 (3): 223–234. doi:10.1007/BF02686879. ISSN 1936-4733. S2CID 144200782.
- ^ Nelson, J. Ron; Stage, Scott; Duppong-Hurley, Kristin; Synhorst, Lori; Epstein, Michael H. (April 2007). "Risk Factors Predictive of the Problem Behavior of Children at Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders". Exceptional Children. 73 (3): 367–379. doi:10.1177/001440290707300306. ISSN 0014-4029. S2CID 498543.
- ^ Mikolajczak, Moïra; Brianda, Maria Elena; Avalosse, Hervé; Roskam, Isabelle (2018-06-01). "Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence". Child Abuse & Neglect. 80: 134–145. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.025. ISSN 0145-2134. PMID 29604504.
- ^ Gordon, Chanelle T.; Hinshaw, Stephen P. (2017). "Parenting Stress as a Mediator between Childhood ADHD and Early Adult Female Outcomes". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 46 (4): 588–599. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1041595. ISSN 1537-4416. PMC 4670298. PMID 26042524.
- ^ Cappa, Kimberly A.; Begle, Angela Moreland; Conger, Judith C.; Dumas, Jean E.; Conger, Anthony J. (2011-06-01). "Bidirectional Relationships Between Parenting Stress and Child Coping Competence: Findings From the Pace Study". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 20 (3): 334–342. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9397-0. ISSN 1573-2843. PMC 6639041. PMID 31320789.
- ^ Joyner, Krystle B.; Silver, Cheryl H.; Stavinoha, Peter L. (2009-04-13). "Relationship Between Parenting Stress and Ratings of Executive Functioning in Children With ADHD". Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 27 (6): 452–464. doi:10.1177/0734282909333945. ISSN 0734-2829. S2CID 144050881.
- ^ DeCaro, Jason A.; Worthman, Carol M. (2008). "Return to school accompanied by changing associations between family ecology and cortisol". Developmental Psychobiology. 50 (2): 183–195. doi:10.1002/dev.20255. ISSN 0012-1630. PMID 18286585.
- ^ a b c Raphael, J. L.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, H.; Giardino, A. P. (March 2010). "Parenting stress in US families: implications for paediatric healthcare utilization". Child: Care, Health and Development. 36 (2): 216–224. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01052.x. ISSN 0305-1862. PMID 20047600.
- ^ a b c Barroso, Nicole E.; Mendez, Lucybel; Graziano, Paulo A.; Bagner, Daniel M. (2017-05-29). "Parenting Stress through the Lens of Different Clinical Groups: a Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 46 (3): 449–461. doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0313-6. ISSN 0091-0627. PMC 5725271. PMID 28555335.
- ^ a b Le, Yunying; Fredman, Steffany J.; Feinberg, Mark E. (September 2017). "Parenting stress mediates the association between negative affectivity and harsh parenting: A longitudinal dyadic analysis". Journal of Family Psychology. 31 (6): 679–688. doi:10.1037/fam0000315. ISSN 1939-1293. PMC 5607072. PMID 28318290. S2CID 25557815.
- ^ Gerson, A. C.; Furth, S. L.; Neu, A. M.; Fivush, B. A. (December 2004). "Assessing associations between medication adherence and potentially modifiable psychosocial variables in pediatric kidney transplant recipients and their families". Pediatric Transplantation. 8 (6): 543–550. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3046.2004.00215.x. ISSN 1397-3142. PMID 15598321. S2CID 41989749.
- ^ Harmeyer, Erin; Ispa, Jean M.; Palermo, Francisco; Carlo, Gustavo (2016). "Predicting self-regulation and vocabulary and academic skills at kindergarten entry: The roles of maternal parenting stress and mother-child closeness". Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 37: 153–164. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.05.001. ISSN 0885-2006.
- ^ Benzies, Karen M.; Harrison, Margaret J.; Magill-Evans, Joyce (March 2004). "Parenting Stress, Marital Quality, and Child Behavior Problems at Age 7 Years". Public Health Nursing. 21 (2): 111–121. doi:10.1111/j.0737-1209.2004.021204.x. ISSN 0737-1209. PMID 14987210.
- ^ Noriuchi, Madoka; Kikuchi, Yoshiaki; Mori, Kumiko; Kamio, Yoko (2019-02-07). "The orbitofrontal cortex modulates parenting stress in the maternal brain". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 1658. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.1658N. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-38402-9. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6367346. PMID 30733605.
- ^ Wright, Michelle L.; Huang, Yunfeng; Hui, Qin; Newhall, Kevin; Crusto, Cindy; Sun, Yan V.; Taylor, Jacquelyn Y. (December 2017). "Parenting stress and DNA methylation among African Americans in the InterGEN Study". Journal of Clinical and Translational Science. 1 (6): 328–333. doi:10.1017/cts.2018.3. ISSN 2059-8661. PMC 5915805. PMID 29707254. S2CID 13799431.
- ^ Azhari, A.; Leck, W. Q.; Gabrieli, G.; Bizzego, A.; Rigo, P.; Setoh, P.; Bornstein, M. H.; Esposito, G. (2019-08-06). "Parenting Stress Undermines Mother-Child Brain-to-Brain Synchrony: A Hyperscanning Study". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 11407. Bibcode:2019NatSR...911407A. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47810-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6684640. PMID 31388049.
- ^ McWey, Lenore; Holtrop, Kendal (2013). "Retention in a parenting intervention for parents involved with the child welfare system". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e635102013-004. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
- ^ Rostad, Whitney L.; Moreland, Angela D.; Valle, Linda Anne; Chaffin, Mark J. (2017-12-22). "Barriers to Participation in Parenting Programs: The Relationship between Parenting Stress, Perceived Barriers, and Program Completion". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 27 (4): 1264–1274. doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6. ISSN 1062-1024. PMC 5812022. PMID 29456438.
- ^ Mash, Eric J.; Johnston, Charlotte; Kovitz, Karen (December 1983). "A comparison of the mother-child interactions of physically abused and non-abused children during play and task situations". Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 12 (3): 337–346. doi:10.1080/15374418309533154. ISSN 0047-228X.
- ^ Kanter, Jeremy B.; Proulx, Christine M. (February 2019). "The longitudinal association between maternal parenting stress and spousal supportiveness". Journal of Family Psychology. 33 (1): 121–131. doi:10.1037/fam0000478. ISSN 1939-1293. PMID 30475003. S2CID 53788169.
- ^ Leavitt, Chelom E.; McDaniel, Brandon T.; Maas, Megan K.; Feinberg, Mark E. (2016-04-12). "Parenting Stress and Sexual Satisfaction Among First-Time Parents: A Dyadic Approach". Sex Roles. 76 (5–6): 346–355. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0623-0. ISSN 0360-0025. PMC 5823519. PMID 29479133.
- ^ Korpa, Terpsichori; Pervanidou, Panagiota; Angeli, Eleni; Apostolakou, Filia; Papanikolaou, Katerina; Papassotiriou, Ioannis; Chrousos, George P.; Kolaitis, Gerasimos (March 2017). "Mothers' parenting stress is associated with salivary cortisol profiles in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". Stress. 20 (2): 149–158. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1303472. ISSN 1607-8888. PMID 28264636. S2CID 3912827.