Epstein Files Full PDF

This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The units of measurement of German-speaking countries consist of a variety of units, with varying local standard definitions. While many were made redundant with the introduction of the metric system, some of these units are still used in everyday speech and even in stores and on street markets as shorthand for similar amounts in the metric system. For example, some customers ask for one pound (ein Pfund) of something when they want 500 grams.

The metric system became compulsory on 1 January 1872, in Germany, and on 1 January 1876, in Austria.^[1]

Some obsolete German units have names similar to units that were traditionally used in other countries, and that are still used in a limited number of cases in both the United Kingdom (imperial units) and the United States (United States customary units).

Before the introduction of the metric system in Germany, almost every town had its own definitions of the units shown below. Often, towns posted local definitions on a wall of the city hall. For example, the front wall of the old city hall of Rudolstadt (still standing) has two marks that show the "Rudolstädter Elle", the proper length of the Elle in that city. Supposedly, by 1810, there were 112 different standards for the Elle around Germany.^{[citation needed]}

"... the measure of cloth, for example, was elle which in each region stood for a different length. An elle of textile material brought in Frankfurt would get you 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, in Freiburg 53.5 cm ..."

A German geographic mile (geographische Meile) is defined as 1⁄15 equatorial degrees, equal to 7,420.54 m (24,345.6 ft). A common German mile, land mile, or post mile (Gemeine deutsche Meile, Landmeile, Postmeile) was defined in various ways at different places and different times. After the introduction of the metric system in the 19th century, the Landmeile was generally fixed at 7500 m (the Reichsmeile), but before then there were many local and regional variants (of which some are shown below):

One hour's travel, used up to the 19th century. In Germany 1⁄2 Meile or 3.71 km (2.31 mi). After 1722 in Saxony 1⁄2 post mile = 1000 Dresden rods = 4531 m.^[4] In Switzerland 16,000 ft or 4.88 km.

The Fuß or German foot varied widely from place to place in the German-speaking world, and also with time. In some places, more than one type of Fuß was in use. One source from 1830^[5] gives the following values:

The Rute or Ruthe is of Carolingian origin,^{[citation needed]} and was used as a land measure. Many different kinds of Ruthe were used at various times in various parts of the German-speaking world. They were subdivided into differing numbers of local Fuß, and were of many different lengths. One source from 1830^[5] lists the following:

Typically 6 feet. Regional variants from 1.75 m in Baden to 3 m in Switzerland.

The Lachter was the most common unit of length used in mining in German-speaking areas. Its exact length varied from place to place but was roughly between 1.9 and 2.1 m.

Distance between elbow and fingertip. In the North, often 2 feet, in Prussia 17⁄8 feet, in the South variable, often 2+1⁄2 feet. The smallest known German Elle is 402.8 mm (15.86 in), the longest 811 mm (31.9 in).

Usually 1⁄12 foot, but also 1⁄11 and 1⁄10.

Usually 1⁄12 inch, but also 1⁄10.

Being 1/5 of any measure

Is a larger volume unit of around one large sack of wheat a person could carry. However, the exact volumetric size and weight was locally very different in each feudal state. For more details, see [1].

For firewood, 2.905 m³ (102.6 cu ft)

In general, the Nösel (also spelled Össel) was a measure of liquid volume equal to half a Kanne ("jar," "jug," "bottle," "can"). Volume often varied depending on whether it was beer or wine. Its subdivisions were the Halbnösel ("Half-Nösel") and the Viertelnösel ("Quarter-Nösel).

An Ahm was a measure used for wine or beer. An Eimer ("Bucket") was a container that was a fifth of an Ahm. A Viertel ("Fourth") was a fourth of an Eimer. A Stübchen ("Cozy Room") also a Stauf was a measure of wine or beer that was equal to two Kannen. It was the approximate amount of wine or beer that could serve an entire room in a tavern. A Kanne was a measure of wine or beer large enough to fill a humpen (tankard) or krug (wine flagon or beer pitcher). A Quartier ("quarter-measure") was a fourth of a Stübchen. A Nösel was a cup or mug of wine or beer.

Actual volumes so measured, however, varied from one state or even one city to another. Within Saxony, for example, the "Dresden jar" held approximately 1 US quart or 0.95 litres or 0.83 imperial quarts, so a nösel in Dresden was about 1 US pint (0.47 L; 0.83 imp pt). The full volume of a "Leipzig jar" measured 1.2 liters (1.3 U.S. qt; 1.1 imp qt); the Leipzig nösel was therefore 0.6 liters (0.63 U.S. qt; 0.53 imp qt).

1⁄320 Ahm = 1⁄64 Eimer = 1⁄16 Viertel = 1⁄8 Stübchen / Stauf = 1⁄4 Kannen = 1⁄2 Quartiers = 1 Nösel = 2 Halbnöseln = 4 Viertelnöseln

The nösel was used in minor commerce, as well as in the household to measure meal, grain, and such. These units of measure were officially valid in Saxony until 1868, when the metric system was introduced. Nevertheless, the old measures have continued in private use for decades.

One modification was introduced in Thuringia. There, the nösel was, by extension, also a measure of area; namely, the area of land which could be sown with one nösel of seed – or about 19.36 square yards (16.19 m²; 0.00400 acres)

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "German units of measurement" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

• Pfund (Prussia): 467.711 g
• Zollpfund: 500 g

1⁄2 Pfund. Equal to 233.856 g (Cologne).

1⁄16 Pfund. Roughly equal to 29.23 g.

1⁄32 Pfund, or 1⁄16 Mark. Equal to 14.606 g (Prussia).

1⁄96 Pfund. Roughly equal to 4.872 g.

1⁄128 Pfund. Roughly equal to 3.65 g.

1⁄512 Pfund. Roughly equal to 0.9135 g.

1⁄7690 Pfund. Roughly equal to 0.0609 g.

• Historical weights and measures
• List of obsolete units of measurement
• SI
• Weights and measures

• François Cardarelli: Encyclopedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures. Their SI Equivalences and Origins. Springer, Berlin 2003. ISBN 1-85233-682-X
• Helmut Kahnt, Bernd Knorr: Alte Masse, Münzen und Gewichte. . Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim/Wien/Zürich 1987. (Lizenzausgabe von VEB Bibliographisches Institut Leipzig 1986) (in German)
• Wolfgang Trapp: Kleines Handbuch der Maße, Zahlen Gewichte und der Zeitrechnung. Von . Reclam Stuttgart, 2. Auflage 1996. ISBN 3-15-008737-6 (in German)
• Günther Scholz, Klaus Vogelsang: Kleines Lexikon: Einheiten, Formelzeichen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig 1991 ISBN 3-343-00500-2 (in German)
• Johann Christian Nelkenbrechers Taschenbuch eines Banquiers und Kaufmanns: enthaltend eine Erklärung aller ein- und ausländischen Münzen, des Wechsel-Courses, Usos, Respect-Tage und anderer zur Handlung gehörigen Dinge; mit einer genauen Vergleichung des Ellen-Maaßes, Handels-, Gold- und Silber-Gewichts, auch Maaße von Getreide und flüssigen Sachen derer fürnehmsten europäischen Handels-Plätze. Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1769: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, Düsseldorf 2004. ISBN 3-936755-58-2 (in German)
• William Tate (1868). The Modern Cambist: Forming a Manual of Foreign Exchanges, in the Different Operations of Bills of Exchange and Bullion, According to the Practice of All Trading Nations, with Tables of Foreign Weights and Measures, and Their Equivalents in English and French.

• Projekt zur Erschliessung historisch wertvoller Altkartenbestände Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine (in German)